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Topic 7: Argumentation & persuasion: Part 2 of 2
From Part 1:
How argumentation-persuasion fits purpose & audience
Strategies for using argumentation-persuasion:
1. Identify controversy & define your position
2. Provide strong support for your thesis.
3. Avoid using a hostile tone
4. Organise the supporting evidence
5. Acknowledge and refute differing viewpoints
6. Use induction or deduction to think logically about your argument
7. Use Toulmin logic to establish a strong connection between your evidence
and thesis
8. Recognise logical fallacies
Ad hominem fallacy
To the man - occurs when someone attacks a person rather than their point
of view. A poor substitute for reasoned argument. For example, attempting
to destroy the credibility of an opponent by saying they have a drinking
problem or a criminal record etc.
Appeals to questionable or faulty authority
Most people are wary of statements like `sources close to …', `an unidentified
spokesperson says …', `Experts claim …', `Studies show …' If a source
is reliable, it should be named. Sources hiding behind anonymity can say
anything and get away with it.
Begging the question
Failure to establish proof for a debating point. The writer expects the
audience to accept as given a premise that is actually controversial. For
example, if you say the Governor General should be stood down because his
appointment is unconstitutional, you would have to first prove how his
appointment is unconstitutional.
False analogy
Wrongly implies that because two things share some characteristics, they
are therefore alike in every respect. For example, if you compare
tobacco with cannabis, saying both involve health risks and are addictive,
then conclude that because smoking tobacco while driving is legal, it should
also be legal to smoke cannabis while driving. This overlooks a major difference
between the two - that cannabis is known to affect co-ordination and perception,
while there is no evidence that tobacco does the same.
Either/or fallacy
Where it is assumed that a particular viewpoint or course of action can
have only one of two diametrically opposed outcomes. For example, `Unless
universities continue to offer scholarships based solely on financial need,
no one who is underprivileged will be able to attend university.' This
ignores the fact that some bright but underprivileged students might get
a scholarship based solely on their academic excellence.
Red herring
An intentional digression from the real issue - a ploy to deflect attention
from the issue. For example, `Mass killing of wild goats in western Queensland
is immoral'. If you reply, `The goat is an introduced species and shouldn't
be there' is a red herring.
Persuading international readers
Some adjustment may be necessary when addressing international readers.
· What is considered to be a benefit differs from country to
country. For example, in Australia, beer is served cold. In England
beer is served at room temperature. Ads for Australian beer in England
(XXXX) focus instead on its thirst quenching qualities, i.e. `Australians
wouldn't give a XXXX for anything else', showing a road petering out at
a Hotel somewhere in the Australian Outback. The roadbuilders had simply
given up when they reached the Hotel.
· What readers consider to be good reasons differ from country
to country. In Western countries, decisions are generally made based on
fact _ or should be; whereas in Middle Eastern countries, the facts are
used to support a primarily emotional appeal.
· What is considered to an appropriate role differs. In strongly
hierarchical societies, the writer must avoid appearing disrespectful,
whereas in Australia, a writer can afford to be more direct at the risk
of offending superiors.
It is important to be fully aware of the cultural norms of the target
audience.
The ethics of persuasion
Persuasion should never be used to further one's own interests at
the expense of other people's interests.
Even if it succeeds at the time, unethical persuasion is usually revealed
as such at a later time. The deceived audience is likely never to trust
the writer again, and may actively warn others not to trust the writer.
Do not mislead
Your reader has a right to evaluate a situation based on accurate facts
and figures, as supplied by you. You must not intentionally supply misleading
information, even by only leaving certain information out, so that the
reader is basing their decision on a false premise.
For example, if a salesman tries to persuade you to buy a Motorola-chip
computer instead of a Intel Pentium-chip computer because the Pentium is
known to be faulty, he is leaving out the important fact that the fault
only appears when a calculation to more than 32 decimal places is being
performed.
Do not manipulate
Kant said that we should never use others merely to get what we want. The
action we are trying to persuade others to take must advance their
interests, as well as our own (Win/Win situation).
High pressure sales techniques are often unethical.
Be open to your reader's point of view
Empathise with the audience to determine their real needs. If they have
a legitimate objection, based on their real needs, then you need to modify
your position accordingly, rather than see it as an objection to be overcome.
The reader is not an adversary, they are a partner in your joint search
for a course of action that is suitable to everyone.
Argue from human values
If human values are relevant, always mention them. If they are disregarded
initially, they are likely to be recognised at a later point.
For example, when trying to persuade an organisation to purchase a new
computer system, it could be pointed out that such a system would improve
the quality of the staff's working conditions by freeing them from boring,
repetitive jobs, allowing them to focus on the kinds of jobs help them
to develop.
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